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Kevin Bettner
Mr D. Johnson, I am interested in speaking with you about this opportunity. I...
Mar 3 (13 days ago)
Reply
from Dave Johnson
to Kevin Bettner
date Thu, Mar 3, 2011 at 11:19 AM
subject Re: Solar Power Opportunity
mailed-by gmail.com
signed-by gmail.com
Important mainly because of your interaction with messages in the conversation.
hide details Mar 3 (12 days ago)
Hi Kevin,
Thank you for your reply to the job posting. I have attached some information for you to review. Our company is based out of the Sacramento area and is trying to expand throughout the state. We act as the "middle man" between a leading renewable energy company and property/home owners. We offer half-acre solar units to property owners at no charge, and pay them $3,260/year to have this on their property. We target agricultural areas because 99% of them fit the requirements for this program. It seems like you have some contacts in the Merced area, and I think you would be a great fit for us. You would be working as an independent contractor and be paid a commission of $2,000 for units 1 and 2, and $3,300 for each unit after that. To ensure our representatives are being proactive, we require a minimum of 2 units per month ($3,300 x 2= $6,600). It takes approximately 60 days to be paid. We are paid when PG&E approves a unit, which is roughly 60 days from the day the paperwork is submitted. The opportunity in your area limitless. If this sounds like something you are interested in, let me know and we can schedule a time to meet.
Sincerely,
Dave Johnson
http://www.solarthermalmagazine.com/2010/08/06/feed-in-tariffs-will-allow-home-owners-to-sell-solar-generated-electricity-back-to-the-grid-accelerate-growth-of-solar-energy-adoption/
- Hide quoted text -
On Thu, Mar 3, 2011 at 6:10 AM, Kevin Bettner wrote:
Mr D. Johnson,
I am interested in speaking with you about this opportunity. I have a technical sales and marketing background. I have some experience with solar and wind power and an engineering degree.
Recently I have been explored many of the surrounding rural areas as an independent courier driver contracting with Ontrac, a regional overnight delivery company. I have traveled most of the Merced, Planada, Chowchilla, and Dos Palos country roads and made deliveries to many ranches, companies, and residences in the Merced County and northern Madera County area. I have met many people.
Solar power has been on my mind a lot during this last few months and finding potential partners and developing relationships with solar power vendors is something I am seriously entertaining.
I am on LinkedIn - http://www.linkedin.com/in/kbettner
Attached is my LinkedIn profile (as a PDF file).
I look forward to hearing from you. I can be reached on my cell phone at 209.201.7408.
Best Regards,
Kevin Bettner
Brochure_Dave-1.pdf
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Best in Residential Solar
The Nation's #1 Home Solar Service. Get Started for $1,000 Today.
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Enter Zip code & Find out Free if Solar Energy can Work for You!
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Kevin Bettner
Mr D. Johnson, I am interested in speaking with you about this opportunity. I...
Mar 3 (13 days ago)
Reply
from Dave Johnson
to Kevin Bettner
date Thu, Mar 3, 2011 at 11:19 AM
subject Re: Solar Power Opportunity
mailed-by gmail.com
signed-by gmail.com
Important mainly because of your interaction with messages in the conversation.
hide details Mar 3 (12 days ago)
Hi Kevin,
Thank you for your reply to the job posting. I have attached some information for you to review. Our company is based out of the Sacramento area and is trying to expand throughout the state. We act as the "middle man" between a leading renewable energy company and property/home owners. We offer half-acre solar units to property owners at no charge, and pay them $3,260/year to have this on their property. We target agricultural areas because 99% of them fit the requirements for this program. It seems like you have some contacts in the Merced area, and I think you would be a great fit for us. You would be working as an independent contractor and be paid a commission of $2,000 for units 1 and 2, and $3,300 for each unit after that. To ensure our representatives are being proactive, we require a minimum of 2 units per month ($3,300 x 2= $6,600). It takes approximately 60 days to be paid. We are paid when PG&E approves a unit, which is roughly 60 days from the day the paperwork is submitted. The opportunity in your area limitless. If this sounds like something you are interested in, let me know and we can schedule a time to meet.
Sincerely,
Dave Johnson
http://www.solarthermalmagazine.com/2010/08/06/feed-in-tariffs-will-allow-home-owners-to-sell-solar-generated-electricity-back-to-the-grid-accelerate-growth-of-solar-energy-adoption/
- Hide quoted text -
On Thu, Mar 3, 2011 at 6:10 AM, Kevin Bettner
Mr D. Johnson,
I am interested in speaking with you about this opportunity. I have a technical sales and marketing background. I have some experience with solar and wind power and an engineering degree.
Recently I have been explored many of the surrounding rural areas as an independent courier driver contracting with Ontrac, a regional overnight delivery company. I have traveled most of the Merced, Planada, Chowchilla, and Dos Palos country roads and made deliveries to many ranches, companies, and residences in the Merced County and northern Madera County area. I have met many people.
Solar power has been on my mind a lot during this last few months and finding potential partners and developing relationships with solar power vendors is something I am seriously entertaining.
I am on LinkedIn - http://www.linkedin.com/in/kbettner
Attached is my LinkedIn profile (as a PDF file).
I look forward to hearing from you. I can be reached on my cell phone at 209.201.7408.
Best Regards,
Kevin Bettner
Brochure_Dave-1.pdf
10538K View Download
Reply
Forward
Invite Dave Johnson to chat
SendSavedDiscardDraft saved at Sunday, March 13, 2011 (2 days ago)
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Ads
Best in Residential Solar
The Nation's #1 Home Solar Service. Get Started for $1,000 Today.
www.SunRunHome.com
Lighthouse Solar Diablo
Sign up Today for a Free Solar Evaluation
www.lighthousesolar.com/free
Free Solar Evaluation
Enter Zip code & Find out Free if Solar Energy can Work for You!
Solar.reply.com
Solar Training
NABCEP - IREC based Curriculums Classroom & Online Programs
www.ontility.com/solar-training
Low Cost Solar Power
$0 Down Lease & No Cost Install. Lower or Eliminate Electric Bills!
AffordableSolarLease.com
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Tuesday, March 15, 2011
transformers
[PDF] Initial Study - SOLARGEN ENERGY, INC.
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
phase has been designed (see Figure 3) and would be equipped to generate 20 MW ... However, the Moss to Panoche transmission line, which is owned by PG&E, ...
www.san-benito.ca.us/departments/planning/.../Initial_Study_112309.pdf
[PDF] SOLARGEN ENERGY, INC.
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
phase has been designed (see Figure 3) and would be equipped to generate 20 ...
www.san-benito.ca.us/departments/planning/.../Initial_Study_101109.pdf
[DOC] Report
File Format: Microsoft Word - View as HTML
Figure 3. Phase 1 Site Plan. 8. Figure 4. Agricultural Resources Map. 22 ...
www.san-benito.ca.us/departments/planning/.../12.../032-18~1.DOC
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[PDF] Extreme Heat Attachment - SAN JOAQUIN COUNTY OFFICE OF EMERGENCY ...
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - View as HTML
Heat Event (Phase 3) & Activation Criteria. ...... Contact PG&E for request to broadcast information as part of their public information campaign. ...
www.co.san-joaquin.ca.us/oes/getplan/MHFP/2008aAttachment1_heat.pdf
[PDF] SAN JOAQUIN COUNTY OFFICE OF EMERGENCY SERVICES May 2008
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - View as HTML
Heat Event (Phase 3) & Activation Criteria. ...... Contact PG&E for request ...
www.co.san-joaquin.ca.us/oes/getplan/.../2008aAttachment1_heat.pdf
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[PDF] APPENDIX D1 BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES REPORT AND EVALUATION
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - View as HTML
Throughout the planning phase of the project, Montezuma II Wind has designed the .... The cables would be buried between turbines and transformers and between transformers ... The interconnection point to the PG&E 230-kilovolt (kV) ..... Shasta to Merced Counties. Vernal pools and ephemeral stock ponds Moderate; ...
www.co.solano.ca.us/civica/filebank/blobdload.asp?BlobID=10496
[PDF] Kyoho Manufacturing California Transmission Line, Substation, and ...
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
Dec 22, 2008 ... properties to the east, and the PG&E tower easement south of ..... line and transformers. The duration of Phase II would be three weeks. ...
www.stocktongov.com/CD/.../EIandISForm_PDraft_121608.pdf - Similar
[PDF] Mariposa Lakes Specific Plan
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat
MASTER RESPONSE 3: RELIANCE ON WATER FROM PHASE I OF THE DELTA WATER ...
www.stocktongov.com/cd/documents/MariposaLakesFEIR6.27.06.pdf
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Korean Accessory wholesale Republic of Korea
3, 89437, ???¼???¸???½?'???'???'?? ???´???¸?????'??, 499621, ? ...... ads, P90x 3-phase nutrition plan pdf download, 147, Native name translator, ...
www.accessory-wholesaler.com/board_view.php?data...boardIndex=30
[XLS] 2007-2009 Data - University of Florida
File Format: Microsoft Excel
Transformers were being replaced due to a recent heat wave. ...... to change the wiring and plug from a single phase 220 volt to a three phase 240 volt. ...
web.dcp.ufl.edu/hinze/yy-2007-2009%20OSHA%20data.xlsx
Talk:Obama at Le Juene - SP Boston
... ubyum, http://fedes.gicp.net/wr/86.html Bumble bee transformer color ...... http://ufoocu.gicp.net/ypqcs/ P90x 3-phase nutrition plan pdf download, ...
www.spboston.org/index.php/Talk:Obama_at_Le_Juene
[PDF] WESTERN ELECTRICITY COORDINATING COUNCIL PLANNING COORDINATION ...
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat
Phase 1-3 Sub-team. A long list of issues was raised on the Phases 1- 3 process. ...... 2011 July 14 – 16 – MVWG meeting hosted by PG&E in San Francisco, CA ...
www.wecc.biz/committees/.../1/Final%20PCC%20Meeting%20Packet.pdf
Best_Practices_Handbook_India_HYPERLINKS - Western Electricity ...
This can damage transformers. The problem can be prevented by proper ...
www.wecc.biz/.../Best_Practices_Handbook_India_HYPERLINKS.txt - Cached
[PDF] WESTERN ELECTRICITY COORDINATING COUNCIL PLANNING COORDINATION ...
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat
Projects Progressing in the Three-Phase Rating Process ...... experts and ...
www.wecc.biz/committees/.../PCC/.../PCC_Meeting_Package_Jun06.pdf
Show more results from wecc.biz
[PDF] CERTIFIED FOR PARTIAL PUBLICATION* IN THE COURT OF APPEAL OF THE ...
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
Feb 4, 2002 ... electrician for Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) and investigated a problem with a load tap changer on a type AFR 12000-volt, 3-phase ...
caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data2/californiastatecases/F035149.PDF
[PDF] NOTICE OF PREPARATION OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT REPORT
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - View as HTML
Figure 3. • • •. Assessor's Parcel Map. Quinto Solar PV Project Notice of Preparation ... then runs underground to 110 inverter and transformer containers that are mounted ..... phase. Few daily trips are anticipated during operations. ... PG&E. Information and analysis contained in the Merced County General Plan, ...
139.151.188.2/pdfs/env_docs/eir/nop_sunpower.pdf
Allis Chalmers Corporation Product Liability Trust
Dec 9, 2010... for Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) and investigated a problem with a load tap changer on a type AFR 12000-volt, 3-phase voltage ...
www.docstoc.com/.../Allis-Chalmers-Corporation-Product-Liability-Trust - Cached
Ibew Local 125 Portland General Electric Contract
Aug 13, 2010 ... PG&E Memo Scope of Crew Foreman Authority. See also 601. ...
www.docstoc.com/docs/.../Ibew-Local-125-Portland-General-Electric-Contract
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Charging Infrastructure [Archive] - Tesla Motors Club ...
100+ posts - 39 authors - Last post: Feb 28
That would sound good, however according to PG&E's website, ...... I think there is no problem getting 3 phase to where you want rapid ...
www.teslamotorsclub.com/archive/index.php?t-3382.html&s... - Cached
Charging Infrastructure [Archive] - Tesla Motors Club Forum
100+ posts - 33 authors - Last post: Feb 1
That would sound good, however according to PG&E's website, ...
www.teslamotorsclub.com/archive/index.php?t-3382.html - Cached
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[PDF] AGE N D A
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat
Merced, Mono. Correction. Standards. AB 900 Phase I County. CAO, Planning, Sheriff ...... The PG&E two-phase transformer is on a pole that is near '3 ...
ccwstor.co.calaveras.ca.us/bos/BoardDocs/2008/081014bd.pdf
[PDF] CALAVERAS COUNTY BOARD OF SUPERVISORS PRELIMINARY AGENDA, AUGUST ...
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat
Aug 26, 2008 ... Power is stepped down to 4160 volts at a PG&E transformer ...
ccwstor.co.calaveras.ca.us/bos/BoardDocs/2008/080826bd.pdf
Show more results from calaveras.ca.us
July 2009 (33) - Next100 - A Dialogue on the Next Century of Energy
Jul 31, 2009 ... This, in turn, helps develop PG&E's next generation of energy efficiency ... increase in male hospital admissions with a diagnosis of depressed phase, ... equipment to prevent transformer failures mean "the chance of cascading ...... of California-Merced and a waste water agency in Riverside County. ...
www.next100.com/2009/07/ - Cached - Similar
May 2009 (28) - Next100 - A Dialogue on the Next Century of Energy
May 29, 2009 ... For the same reason, I doubt anyone at PG&E ever gets tired ...
www.next100.com/2009/05/ - Cached - Similar
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Fisher v. Allis-Chalmers Corporation
... maintenance electrician for Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) and investigated a problem with a load tap changer on a type AFR 12000-volt, 3-phase ...
www.law.com/regionals/ca/opinions/feb/f035149.shtml
[PDF] Current Projects Overview
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat
Digital Protection System Using Optical Instrument Transformers and Digital Relays ...... curves to improve their accuracy with three phase loads. ...
www.pserc.wisc.edu/.../pserc.../PSERC_Projects_Status_Dec_2010.pdf
[PDF] Handouts: PSERC IAB Meeting, December 2009
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - View as HTML
Overloading and Optimum Operation of Liquid Filled Power Transformers (T-25 ...
www.pserc.wisc.edu/ecow/get/.../dec2.../pserc_iab_dec_2009_handouts.pdf
Show more results from wisc.edu
Jobs with Lighting in Parkfield, CA
Feb 7, 2011 ... Diagnoses malfunctioning apparatus such as transformers, motors, ... and 3 phase power for commercial baking equipment, lighting, ...
www.sanluisobispocountybusinesslist.com/jobs.asp?jobq... - Cached
[PDF] Deconstructing profits prove worthy
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - View as HTML
or 3-Phase Power. Large Oil Cooler for. Continuous Cycling. AMERICAN .... PG&E and the Yocha Dehe Wintun. Nation have unveiled a new program that .... Golden By-Products of Merced County and Bulldog Rubber and Recycling of San ..... 55-gallon drums and a transformer. Two weeks earlier, the company had a sample ...
www.americanrecycler.com/PDFlib/1109.pdf
[PDF] Untitled
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
closely with PG&E, Comcast, AT&T, and City of Merced Public Works to ensure that ...... The pump motor shall be a 3-phase NEMA Design B, oil filled or ...
www.cityofmerced.org/civica/filebank/blobdload.asp?BlobID=8694
GPCA Elections Archive - 2008
(Voters in Merced have been promised, by the Authority, that Merced will actually be served by the first phase, despite the maps, ..... PG&E and Southern California Edison have already contributed about $24 million to ... This transfers the pollution to another environment and ultimately to the Earth's environment. ...
www.cagreens.org/elections/2008/Propositions.081104.shtml - Cached - Similar
XML
Mar 6, 2001 ... Florida tomatoes must be packed in accordance with three ...... Power Act a Phase-Shifting Transformer Funding Agreement between Cleco and ...
www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2001-03-06/xml/FR-2001-03-06.xml
[PDF] 2–5–04 Vol. 69 No. 24 Thursday Feb. 5, 2004 Pages 5459–5678
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat
Feb 5, 2004 ... Merced County, CA; Merced County Streams Project, ...
www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2004-02-05/pdf/FR-2004-02-05.pdf
XML
Feb 5, 2004 ... The study area lies east and north of the city of Merced, ...
www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2004-02-05/xml/FR-2004-02-05.xml
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[PDF] SECTION C - SPECIFICATIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS DIVISION 1 - GENERAL ...
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
Jun 2, 2010 ... 3-phase b. 60-hertz c. Voltage: 480 Volts, or what is currently ...... and negotiations with appropriate utility company, PG&E, Turlock ...
ideasec.nbc.gov/ows-cls/.../Spec%20C0759%20rev_Jun02_2010.pdf
Full text of "California state water project"
Second-Stage PG&E Substation Two station service transformers reduce voltage for the distribution cabinets from 4160 volts to 208Y/120 volts, 3 phase. ...
www.archive.org/stream/.../up1californiastatew2004calirich_djvu.txt
Full text of "Application for certification for San Francisco ...
2.2.13 Interconnect to Electrical Grid Each of the three CTGs will be ...
www.archive.org/stream/.../applicationforce20041sanf_djvu.txt
Show more results from archive.org
The Recovery Act: Success Stories in the States
We look forward to the implementation of this phase of the major restoration ..... PG&E has said its compressed air storage project should be able to store .... energy through a nearby transformer and to Pacific Gas and Electric… .... Recovery Act loans were awarded to two companies in Merced County which will ...
dpc.senate.gov/dpcdoc-arrasuccess.cfm?state=ca - Cached
microhydro : Message: [microhydro] Re: pressurized fluids as ...
13 posts - Last post: Dec 3, 1999
several 950 to 1150 rpm motors, 3 phase 1hp for about 250$. ... hydro potential of the Merced river is a bygone item as it's now in the ...
tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/microhydro/message/742 - Cached
0502 05 Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health ...
Jun 10, 2005 ... The proposed contract is a continuation of a three phase study effort ...... off Highway 33 in Merced County, California; Nimbus Powerplant, ...
ftp://ftp.fbo.gov/FBOFeed20050610
20020219_IBM_Mainframe_at_home - Neil Franklin's Home Page
Feb 19, 2002 ... Feeding a residence with 120/208 VAC 3-phase (the standard IBM machine .... and distribution and transformers from their main trunk lines. ...
neil.franklin.ch/Usenet/alt.../20020219_IBM_Mainframe_at_home - Cached
[PDF] Daily e-Reporter
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
Jul 19, 2010 ... earliest phase of site selection, will .... to Merced Street. A Kaiser spokesperson said the San ...... Description: Book 3 of 3 and Attachment C - Drawings ... work related to the relocation of a transformer, including co- ordination with PG&E. There is some marine work as well. ...
www.thedailyreporter.net/e-Reporter_July19_2010.pdf
[PDF] Other CEQA Considerations 4.1 Cumulative Impacts
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
The proposed project would require the storage of transformer oil, .... operational phase of these project components would result in a minor amount of resource .... use the same PG&E transmission line. Analysis of the Three Mountain .... Pacheco Pass (in Merced County), San Gorgonio Pass (in Riverside County), ...
www.co.shasta.ca.us/.../Resource...Ridge/Ch_4_OtherAnalyses.sflb.ashx
[PDF] Minutes of the Regular Meeting of the Lemoore Planning Commission
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
concept for the parcel developed in three phases, but only phase one is being ..... Joe Mowji from Merced stated that they presented a conceptual plan about a year ago ... transformer shall be located 5' from edges of unit to reduce traffic issues ... across the St. Peters property, then due east along the 40' PG&E ...
www.lemoore.com/planning/agendas/2008/.../2_25_item_3.pdf - Similar
[PDF] TURLOCK IRRIGATION DISTRICT ANNUAL REPORT 2008
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
Jun 30, 2009 ... residential homes, 3 commercial properties and 4 agricultural .... TID has completed the first phase of replacing existing retail electric ..... which includes portions of Stanislaus, Merced and ... of Pacific Gas and Electric's (PG&E) electric .... transformers, transmission and distribution (T&D) ...
www.donpedrolake.com/stellentdmz/.../tidweb_2008_annual_report.pdf
Utility System Construction
Experience with commercial 3-phase electrical power construction projects ...... Pepco also says fixing transformers and other lines was difficult because ...
pubsub.com/Its-been-a-Cruel-Summer-in-Hermosa-Beach-Thanks-to-the-Ongoing-Pier-Avenue-Improvement-Project-Utility-System-Constru... - Cached
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[PDF] Integrated Assessment of Dispersed Energy Resources Deployment
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - View as HTML
between PG&E (the distribution company), several small scale generator ...... TOU-GS-2 is applicable to single- and three-phase general service including ...
certs.lbl.gov/pdf/46082.pdf
[PDF] Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions
File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - View as HTML
by C Marnay - 2000 - Related articles
between PG&E (the distribution company), several small scale generator ...
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[PDF] DRAFT The California Electricity Crisis
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[PDF] DRAFT The California Electricity Crisis
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power
Rural Electrification systems, in contrast to urban systems, tend to use higher voltages because of the longer distances covered by those distribution lines (see Rural Electrification Administration). 7200, 12470 and 25000 volt distribution is common in the United States; 11 kV and 33 kV are common in the UK, New Zealand and Australia; 11 kV and 22 kV are common in South Africa. Other voltages are occasionally used.
Generation and Distribution
At the power station an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a set of alternating electric currents, one from each electromagnetic coil or winding of the generator. The currents are sinusoidal functions of time, all at the same frequency but with different phases. In a three-phase system the phases are spaced equally, giving a phase separation of 120°. The frequency is typically 50 Hz in Europe and 60 Hz in the US (see List of countries with mains power plugs, voltages & frequencies).
Generators output at a voltage that ranges from hundreds of volts to 30,000 volts. At the power station, transformers "step-up" this voltage to one more suitable for transmission.
After numerous further conversions in the transmission and distribution network the power is finally transformed to the standard mains voltage. The power may already have been split into single phase at this point or it may still be three phase. Where the stepdown is 3 phase, the output of this transformer is nearly always star connected with the standard mains voltage (120 V (in the US) or 230 V (in Europe)) being the phase-neutral voltage.
Where three phase at low voltage is otherwise in use, it may be still be split out into single phase service cables through joints in the supply network or it may be delivered to a master distribution board (breaker panel) at the customer's premises. Connecting an electrical circuit from one phase to the neutral supplies the country's standard single phase voltage (120 Vac or 230 Vac) to the circuit.
The power transmission grid is organized so that each phase carries the same magnitude of current out of the major parts of the transmission system. The currents returning from the customers' premises to the last supply transformer all share the neutral wire, but the three-phase system ensures that the sum of the returning currents is approximately zero. The delta wiring of the primary side of that supply transformer means that no neutral is needed in the high voltage side of the network.
Bulk power transmission
Engineers design transmission networks to transport the energy as efficiently as feasible, while at the same time taking into account economic factors, network safety and redundancy. These networks use components such as power lines, cables, circuit breakers, switches and transformers.
A transmission substation decreases the voltage of electricity coming in allowing it to connect from long distance, high voltage transmission, to local, lower voltage, distribution. It also rerouts power to other transmission lines that serve local markets.
Transmission efficiency is improved by increasing the voltage using a step-up transformer, which reduces the current in the conductors, while keeping the power transmitted nearly equal to the power input. The reduced current flowing through the conductor reduces the losses in the conductor and since, according to Joule's Law, the losses are proportional to the square of the current, halving the current makes the transmission loss one quarter the original value.
A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission circuits, and substations. Energy is usually transmitted within the grid with three-phase AC. DC systems require relatively costly conversion equipment which may be economically justified for particular projects. Single phase AC is used only for distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase induction motors. In the 19th century two-phase transmission was used, but required either three wires with unequal currents or four wires. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but deliver marginal benefits.
The capital cost of electric power stations is so high, and electric demand is so variable, that it is often cheaper to import some portion of the variable load than to generate it locally. Because nearby loads are often correlated (hot weather in the Southwest portion of the United States might cause many people there to turn on their air conditioners), imported electricity must often come from far away. Because of the economics of load balancing, transmission grids now span across countries and even large portions of continents. The web of interconnections between power producers and consumers ensures that power can flow even if a few links are inoperative.
The unvarying (or slowly varying over many hours) portion of the electric demand is known as the "base load", and is generally served best by large facilities (and therefore efficient due to economies of scale) with low variable costs for fuel and operations, i.e. nuclear, coal, and renewables like hydro, solar, wind, ocean, etc.. Smaller- and higher-cost sources are then added as needed.
Long-distance transmission of electricity (thousands of miles) is cheap and efficient, with costs of US$ 0.005 to 0.02 per kilowatt-hour (compared to annual averaged large producer costs of US$ 0.01 to US$ 0.025 per kilowatt-hour, retail rates upwards of US$ 0.10 per kilowatt-hour, and multiples of retail for instantaneous suppliers at unpredicted highest demand moments).[6] Thus distant suppliers can be cheaper than local sources (e.g. New York City buys a lot of electricity from Canada). Multiple local sources (even if more expensive and infrequently used) can make the transmission grid more fault tolerant to weather and other disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.
Getting renewables connected into the long-distance transmission grid is critical for energy self-sufficiency. Hydro and wind sources can't be moved closer to high population cities, and solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are the least. Connection costs alone can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically sensible, e.g. costs can be prohibitive for redundant transmission lines up to distant mountain ridges where enormous quantities of economically valuable high speed winds blow reliably.
Grid input
At the generating plants the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage of up to 30 kV (Grigsby, 2001, p. 4-4), then stepped up by the power station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, ± 250-500 kV DC, varying by country) for transmission over long distances to grid exit points (substations).
Power lines near Birmingham, Alabama
Losses
Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to Joule heating. For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the resistive losses in the conductor. Long distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. However, at extremely high voltages, more than 2,000 kV between conductor and ground, corona discharge losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistance loss in the line conductors.
Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 7.2% in 1995 [2], and in the UK at 7.4% in 1998. [3]
As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for electricity was 4,000 miles (7,000 km), although all present transmission lines are considerably shorter. (see Present Limits of High-Voltage Transmission)
In an alternating current transmission line, the inductance and capacitance of the line conductors can be significant. The currents that flow in these components of transmission line impedance constitute reactive power, which transmits no energy to the load. Reactive current flow causes extra losses in the transmission circuit. The ratio of real power (transmitted to the load) to apparent power is the power factor. As reactive current increases, the reactive power increases and the power factor decreases. For systems with low power factors, losses are higher than for systems with high power factors. Utilities add capacitor banks and other components throughout the system — such as phase-shifting transformers, static VAR compensators, and flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) — to control reactive power flow for reduction of losses and stabilization of system voltage.
Electrical power is always partially lost by transmission. This applies to short distances such as between components on a printed circuit board as well as to cross country high voltage lines. The major component of power loss is due to ohmic losses in the conductors and is equal to the product of the resistance of the wire and the square of the current:
Ploss = RI2
For a system which delivers a power, P, at unity power factor at a particular voltage, V, the current flowing through the cables is given by . Thus, the power lost in the lines, .
Therefore, the power lost is proportional to the resistance and inversely proportional to the square of the voltage. A higher transmission voltage reduces the current and thus the power lost during transmission.
In addition, a low resistance is desirable in the cable. While copper cable could be used, aluminium alloy is preferred due to its much better conductivity to weight ratio making it lighter to support, as well as its lower cost. The aluminium is normally mechanically supported on a steel core.
Generation and Distribution
At the power station an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a set of alternating electric currents, one from each electromagnetic coil or winding of the generator. The currents are sinusoidal functions of time, all at the same frequency but with different phases. In a three-phase system the phases are spaced equally, giving a phase separation of 120°. The frequency is typically 50 Hz in Europe and 60 Hz in the US (see List of countries with mains power plugs, voltages & frequencies).
Generators output at a voltage that ranges from hundreds of volts to 30,000 volts. At the power station, transformers "step-up" this voltage to one more suitable for transmission.
After numerous further conversions in the transmission and distribution network the power is finally transformed to the standard mains voltage. The power may already have been split into single phase at this point or it may still be three phase. Where the stepdown is 3 phase, the output of this transformer is nearly always star connected with the standard mains voltage (120 V (in the US) or 230 V (in Europe)) being the phase-neutral voltage.
Where three phase at low voltage is otherwise in use, it may be still be split out into single phase service cables through joints in the supply network or it may be delivered to a master distribution board (breaker panel) at the customer's premises. Connecting an electrical circuit from one phase to the neutral supplies the country's standard single phase voltage (120 Vac or 230 Vac) to the circuit.
The power transmission grid is organized so that each phase carries the same magnitude of current out of the major parts of the transmission system. The currents returning from the customers' premises to the last supply transformer all share the neutral wire, but the three-phase system ensures that the sum of the returning currents is approximately zero. The delta wiring of the primary side of that supply transformer means that no neutral is needed in the high voltage side of the network.
Bulk power transmission
Engineers design transmission networks to transport the energy as efficiently as feasible, while at the same time taking into account economic factors, network safety and redundancy. These networks use components such as power lines, cables, circuit breakers, switches and transformers.
A transmission substation decreases the voltage of electricity coming in allowing it to connect from long distance, high voltage transmission, to local, lower voltage, distribution. It also rerouts power to other transmission lines that serve local markets.
Transmission efficiency is improved by increasing the voltage using a step-up transformer, which reduces the current in the conductors, while keeping the power transmitted nearly equal to the power input. The reduced current flowing through the conductor reduces the losses in the conductor and since, according to Joule's Law, the losses are proportional to the square of the current, halving the current makes the transmission loss one quarter the original value.
A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission circuits, and substations. Energy is usually transmitted within the grid with three-phase AC. DC systems require relatively costly conversion equipment which may be economically justified for particular projects. Single phase AC is used only for distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase induction motors. In the 19th century two-phase transmission was used, but required either three wires with unequal currents or four wires. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but deliver marginal benefits.
The capital cost of electric power stations is so high, and electric demand is so variable, that it is often cheaper to import some portion of the variable load than to generate it locally. Because nearby loads are often correlated (hot weather in the Southwest portion of the United States might cause many people there to turn on their air conditioners), imported electricity must often come from far away. Because of the economics of load balancing, transmission grids now span across countries and even large portions of continents. The web of interconnections between power producers and consumers ensures that power can flow even if a few links are inoperative.
The unvarying (or slowly varying over many hours) portion of the electric demand is known as the "base load", and is generally served best by large facilities (and therefore efficient due to economies of scale) with low variable costs for fuel and operations, i.e. nuclear, coal, and renewables like hydro, solar, wind, ocean, etc.. Smaller- and higher-cost sources are then added as needed.
Long-distance transmission of electricity (thousands of miles) is cheap and efficient, with costs of US$ 0.005 to 0.02 per kilowatt-hour (compared to annual averaged large producer costs of US$ 0.01 to US$ 0.025 per kilowatt-hour, retail rates upwards of US$ 0.10 per kilowatt-hour, and multiples of retail for instantaneous suppliers at unpredicted highest demand moments).[6] Thus distant suppliers can be cheaper than local sources (e.g. New York City buys a lot of electricity from Canada). Multiple local sources (even if more expensive and infrequently used) can make the transmission grid more fault tolerant to weather and other disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.
Getting renewables connected into the long-distance transmission grid is critical for energy self-sufficiency. Hydro and wind sources can't be moved closer to high population cities, and solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are the least. Connection costs alone can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically sensible, e.g. costs can be prohibitive for redundant transmission lines up to distant mountain ridges where enormous quantities of economically valuable high speed winds blow reliably.
Grid input
At the generating plants the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage of up to 30 kV (Grigsby, 2001, p. 4-4), then stepped up by the power station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, ± 250-500 kV DC, varying by country) for transmission over long distances to grid exit points (substations).
Power lines near Birmingham, Alabama
Losses
Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to Joule heating. For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the resistive losses in the conductor. Long distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. However, at extremely high voltages, more than 2,000 kV between conductor and ground, corona discharge losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistance loss in the line conductors.
Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 7.2% in 1995 [2], and in the UK at 7.4% in 1998. [3]
As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for electricity was 4,000 miles (7,000 km), although all present transmission lines are considerably shorter. (see Present Limits of High-Voltage Transmission)
In an alternating current transmission line, the inductance and capacitance of the line conductors can be significant. The currents that flow in these components of transmission line impedance constitute reactive power, which transmits no energy to the load. Reactive current flow causes extra losses in the transmission circuit. The ratio of real power (transmitted to the load) to apparent power is the power factor. As reactive current increases, the reactive power increases and the power factor decreases. For systems with low power factors, losses are higher than for systems with high power factors. Utilities add capacitor banks and other components throughout the system — such as phase-shifting transformers, static VAR compensators, and flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) — to control reactive power flow for reduction of losses and stabilization of system voltage.
Electrical power is always partially lost by transmission. This applies to short distances such as between components on a printed circuit board as well as to cross country high voltage lines. The major component of power loss is due to ohmic losses in the conductors and is equal to the product of the resistance of the wire and the square of the current:
Ploss = RI2
For a system which delivers a power, P, at unity power factor at a particular voltage, V, the current flowing through the cables is given by . Thus, the power lost in the lines, .
Therefore, the power lost is proportional to the resistance and inversely proportional to the square of the voltage. A higher transmission voltage reduces the current and thus the power lost during transmission.
In addition, a low resistance is desirable in the cable. While copper cable could be used, aluminium alloy is preferred due to its much better conductivity to weight ratio making it lighter to support, as well as its lower cost. The aluminium is normally mechanically supported on a steel core.
Three-phase electric power
Three-phase electric power
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about general three-phase electricity concepts. For the basic mathematics and principles of three-phase electricity, see three-phase.
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)
Three-phase transformer with four wire output for 208Y/120 volt service: one wire for neutral, others for A, B and C phases.
Three-phase electric power transmission.
Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating current electric power generation, transmission, and distribution.[1] It is a type of polyphase system and is the most common method used by grids worldwide to transfer power. It is also used to power large motors and other large loads. A three-phase system is generally more economical than others because it uses less conductor material to transmit electric power than equivalent single-phase or two-phase systems at the same voltage.[2] The three-phase system was introduced and patented by Nikola Tesla in the years from 1887 to 1888.
In a three-phase system, three circuit conductors carry three alternating currents (of the same frequency) which reach their instantaneous peak values at different times. Taking one conductor as the reference, the other two currents are delayed in time by one-third and two-thirds of one cycle of the electric current. This delay between phases has the effect of giving constant power transfer over each cycle of the current and also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic field in an electric motor.
Three-phase systems may have a neutral wire. A neutral wire allows the three-phase system to use a higher voltage while still supporting lower-voltage single-phase appliances. In high-voltage distribution situations, it is common not to have a neutral wire as the loads can simply be connected between phases (phase-phase connection).
Three-phase has properties that make it very desirable in electric power systems:
The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in the case of a linear balanced load. This makes it possible to eliminate or reduce the size of the neutral conductor; all the phase conductors carry the same current and so can be the same size, for a balanced load.
Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to reduce generator and motor vibrations.
Three-phase systems can produce a magnetic field that rotates in a specified direction, which simplifies the design of electric motors.
Three is the lowest phase order to exhibit all of these properties.
Most household loads are single-phase. In North America and some other countries, three-phase power generally does not enter homes. Even in areas where it does, it is typically split out at the main distribution board and the individual loads are fed from a single phase. Sometimes it is used to power electric stoves and electric clothes dryers.
The three phases are typically indicated by colors which vary by country. See the table for more information.
Contents [hide]
1 Generation and distribution
2 Three-wire versus four-wire
3 Single-phase loads
4 Three-phase loads
5 Phase converters
6 Alternatives to three-phase
7 Color codes
8 See also
9 References
[edit]Generation and distribution
Animation of three-phase current flow
Left: Elementary six-wire three-phase alternator, with each phase using a separate pair of transmission wires.[3] Right: Elementary three-wire three-phase alternator, showing how the phases can share only three wires.[4]
At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a set of three alternating electric currents, one from each coil (a.k.a. "winding") of the generator. The windings are arranged such that the currents vary sinusoidally at the same frequency but with the peaks and troughs of their wave forms offset to provide three complementary currents with a phase separation of one-third cycle (120° or 2π/3 radians). The generator frequency is typically 50 or 60 Hz, varying by country. (See Mains power systems for more detail.)
Large power generators provide an electric current at a potential which can be a few hundred volts or up to about 30 kV. At the power station, transformers step this voltage up to one suitable for transmission.
After numerous further conversions in the transmission and distribution network, the power is finally transformed to the standard utilization voltage for lighting and equipment. Single-phase loads are connected from one phase to neutral or between two phases. Three-phase loads such as larger motors must be connected to all three phases of the supply.
[edit]Three-wire versus four-wire
Three-phase circuits occur in two varieties. In one case, there are only three energized ("hot") wires; in the other case, there are three hot wires plus a neutral wire. Four-wire circuits offer flexibility, since a load may be connected "line-to-line" or "line-to-neutral"; three-wire circuits offer economy, since the neutral conductor is eliminated. Commonly, distribution voltage circuits are four-wire, while higher voltage transmission circuits are three-wire. Transmission lines often figure a ground wire, but this is solely for lightning protection and is not connected to deliver electrical power.
[edit]Single-phase loads
Single-phase loads may be connected to a three-phase system in two ways. Either a load may be connected across two of the live conductors, or a load can be connected from a live phase conductor to the neutral conductor. Single-phase loads should be distributed evenly between the phases of the three-phase system for efficient use of the supply transformer and supply conductors. If the line-to-neutral voltage is a standard load voltage, for example 230 volt on a 400 volt three-phase system, single-phase loads can connect to a phase and the neutral. Loads can be distributed over three phases to balance the load. Where the line-to-neutral voltage is not the standard voltage for example 347 volts produced by a 600 V system, single-phase loads are connected through a step-down transformer.
In a symmetrical three-phase system, the system neutral has the same magnitude of voltage to each of the three-phase conductors. The voltage between line conductors (Vl) is √3 times the phase conductor to neutral voltage (Vp). That is: Vl = √3Vp.
In some multiple-unit residential buildings of North America, three-phase power is supplied to the building but individual units have only single-phase power formed from two of the three supply phases. Lighting and convenience receptacles are connected from either phase conductor to neutral, giving the usual 120 V required by typical North American appliances. In the split-phase system, high-power loads are connected between the opposite "hot" poles, giving a voltage of 240 V. In some cases, they may be connected between phases of a three-phase system, giving a voltage of 208 V. This practice is common enough that 208 V single-phase equipment is readily available in North America. Attempts to use the more common 120/240 V equipment intended for split-phase distribution may result in poor performance since 240 V heating and lighting equipment will only produce 75% of its rating when operated at 208 V. Motors rated at 240 V will draw higher curent at 208 V; some motors are dual-labelled for both voltages.
Where three-phase at low voltage is otherwise in use, it may still be split out into single-phase service cables through joints in the supply network or it may be delivered to a master distribution board (breaker panel) at the customer's premises. Connecting an electrical circuit from one phase to the neutral generally supplies the country's standard single phase voltage (120 V AC or 230 V AC) to the circuit.
The currents returning from the customers' premises to the supply transformer all share the neutral wire. If the loads are evenly distributed on all three phases, the sum of the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately zero. Any unbalanced phase loading on the secondary side of the transformer will use the transformer capacity inefficiently.
If the supply neutral of a three-phase system with line-to-neutral connected loads is broken, the voltage balance on the loads will no longer be maintained. The neutral point will tend to drift toward the most heavily loaded phase, causing undervoltage conditions on that phase only. Correspondingly, the lightly loaded phases may approach the line-to-line voltage, which exceeds the line-to-neutral voltage by a factor of √3, causing overheating and failure of many types of loads.
For example, if several houses are connected through a 240 V transformer, which is connected to one phase of the three-phase system, each house might be affected by the imbalance on the three phase system. If the neutral connection is broken somewhere in the system, all equipment in a house might be damaged due to over-voltage. A similar phenomenon can exist if the house neutral (connected to the center tap of the 240 V pole transformer) is disconnected. This type of failure event can be difficult to troubleshoot if the drifting neutral effect is not understood. With inductive and/or capacitive loads, all phases can suffer damage as the reactive current moves across abnormal paths in the unbalanced system, especially if resonance conditions occur. For this reason, neutral connections are a critical part of a power distribution network and must be made as reliable as any of the phase connections.
Where a mixture of single-phase 120-volt lighting and three-phase, 240-volt motors are to be supplied, a system called high-leg delta is used.
[edit]Three-phase loads
A transformer for a high-leg delta system; 240 V 3-phase motors would be connected to L1, L2 and L3. Single-phase lighting would be connected L1 or L2 to neutral (N). No loads would be connected from L3 (the high or wild leg) to neutral, since the voltage would be 208 V.
The most important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A three-phase induction motor has a simple design, inherently high starting torque and high efficiency. Such motors are applied in industry for pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, conveyor drives, electric vehicles and many other kinds of motor-driven equipment. A three-phase motor is more compact and less costly than a single-phase motor of the same voltage class and rating and single-phase AC motors above 10 HP (7.5 kW) are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and hence last longer than single-phase motors of the same power used under the same conditions.
Resistance heating loads such as electric boilers or space heating may be connected to three-phase systems. Electric lighting may also be similarly connected. These types of loads do not require the revolving magnetic field characteristic of three-phase motors but take advantage of the higher voltage and power level usually associated with three-phase distribution. Legacy fluorescent lighting systems also benefit from reduced flicker if adjacent fixtures are powered from different phases.
Large rectifier systems may have three-phase inputs; the resulting DC is easier to filter (smooth) than the output of a single-phase rectifier. Such rectifiers may be used for battery charging, electrolysis processes such as aluminium production or for operation of DC motors.
An interesting example of a three-phase load is the electric arc furnace used in steelmaking and in refining of ores.
In much of Europe, stoves are designed for a three-phase feed. Usually the individual heating units are connected between phase and neutral to allow for connection to a single-phase supply. In many areas of Europe, single-phase power is the only source available.
[edit]Phase converters
Occasionally the advantages of three-phase motors make it worthwhile to convert single-phase power to three-phase. Small customers, such as residential or farm properties, may not have access to a three-phase supply or may not want to pay for the extra cost of a three-phase service but may still wish to use three-phase equipment. Such converters may also allow the frequency to be varied allowing speed control. Some railway locomotives are moving to multi-phase motors driven by such systems even though the incoming supply to a locomotive is nearly always either DC or single-phase AC.
Because single-phase power goes to zero at each moment that the voltage crosses zero but three-phase delivers power continuously, any such converter must have a way to store energy for the necessary fraction of a second.
One method for using three-phase equipment on a single-phase supply is with a rotary phase converter, essentially a three-phase motor with special starting arrangements and power factor correction that produces balanced three-phase voltages. When properly designed, these rotary converters can allow satisfactory operation of three-phase equipment such as machine tools on a single-phase supply. In such a device, the energy storage is performed by the mechanical inertia (flywheel effect) of the rotating components. An external flywheel is sometimes found on one or both ends of the shaft.
A second method that was popular in the 1940s and 1950s was the transformer method. At that time, capacitors were more expensive than transformers, so an autotransformer was used to apply more power through fewer capacitors. This method performs well and does have supporters, even today. The usage of the name transformer method separated it from another common method, the static converter, as both methods have no moving parts, which separates them from the rotary converters.
Another method often attempted is with a device referred to as a static phase converter. This method of running three-phase equipment is commonly attempted with motor loads though it only supplies ⅔ power and can cause the motor loads to run hot and in some cases overheat. This method does not work when sensitive circuitry is involved such as CNC devices or in induction and rectifier-type loads.
Some devices are made which create an imitation three-phase from three-wire single-phase supplies. This is done by creating a third "subphase" between the two live conductors, resulting in a phase separation of 180° − 90° = 90°. Many three-phase devices can run on this configuration but at lower efficiency.
Variable-frequency drives (also known as solid-state inverters) are used to provide precise speed and torque control of three-phase motors. Some models can be powered by a single-phase supply. VFDs work by converting the supply voltage to DC and then converting the DC to a suitable three-phase source for the motor.
Digital phase converters are designed for fixed-frequency operation from a single-phase source. Similar to a variable-frequency drive, they use a microprocessor to control solid-state power switching components to maintain balanced three-phase voltages.
[edit]Alternatives to three-phase
Split-phase electric power is used when three-phase power is not available and allows double the normal utilization voltage to be supplied for high-power loads.
Two-phase electric power, like three-phase, gives constant power transfer to a linear load. For loads that connect each phase to neutral, assuming the load is the same power draw, the two-wire system has a neutral current which is greater than neutral current in a three-phase system. Also motors are not entirely linear, which means that despite the theory, motors running on three-phase tend to run smoother than those on two-phase. The generators in the Adams Power Plant at Niagara Falls which were installed in 1895 were the largest generators in the world at the time and were two-phase machines. True two-phase power distribution is essentially obsolete. Special-purpose systems may use a two-phase system for control. Two-phase power may be obtained from a three-phase system using an arrangement of transformers called a Scott-T transformer.
Monocyclic power was a name for an asymmetrical modified two-phase power system used by General Electric around 1897, championed by Charles Proteus Steinmetz and Elihu Thomson. This system was devised to avoid patent infringement. In this system, a generator was wound with a full-voltage single-phase winding intended for lighting loads and with a small (usually ¼ of the line voltage) winding which produced a voltage in quadrature with the main windings. The intention was to use this "power wire" additional winding to provide starting torque for induction motors, with the main winding providing power for lighting loads. After the expiration of the Westinghouse patents on symmetrical two-phase and three-phase power distribution systems, the monocyclic system fell out of use; it was difficult to analyze and did not last long enough for satisfactory energy metering to be developed.
High-phase-order systems for power transmission have been built and tested. Such transmission lines use six (two-pole, three-phase) or twelve (two-pole, six-phase) lines and employ design practices characteristic of extra-high-voltage transmission lines. High-phase-order transmission lines may allow transfer of more power through a given transmission line right-of-way without the expense of a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter at each end of the line.
[edit]Color codes
Conductors of a three-phase system are usually identified by a color code, to allow for balanced loading and to assure the correct phase rotation for induction motors. Colors used may adhere to International Standard IEC 60446, older standards or to no standard at all and may vary even within a single installation. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, different color codes are used for grounded (earthed) and ungrounded systems.
L1 L2 L3 Neutral Ground/
protective earth
Australia and New Zealand (per AS/NZS 3000:2007 Figure 3.2) Red1 White1 (prev. yellow) Dark blue1 Black1 Green/yellow striped (green on very old installations)
Canada (mandatory)[5] Red Black Blue White Green or bare copper
Canada (isolated three-phase installations)[6] Orange Brown Yellow White Green
European Union and all countries who use European CENELEC standards April 2004 (IEC 60446), Hong Kong from July 2007 Brown Black Grey Blue Green/yellow striped2
Older European (IEC 60446, varies by country3) Black or brown Black or brown Black or brown Blue Green/yellow striped3
UK until April 2006, Hong Kong until April 2009, South Africa, Malaysia, Singapore Red Yellow Blue Black Green/yellow striped (green on installations approx. before 1970)
Republic of India and Pakistan Red Yellow Blue Black Green
People's Republic of China (per GB 50303-2002 Section 15.2.2) Yellow Green Red Light blue Green/yellow striped
Norway Black White/Grey Brown Blue Yellow/green striped, older may be only yellow or bare copper
United States (common practice)4 Black Red Blue White, or grey Green, green/yellow striped or a bare copper wire
United States (alternative practice)5 Brown Orange(delta) Violet(wye) Yellow Grey, or white Green
^1 In Australia and New Zealand, active conductors can be any color except green/yellow, green, yellow, black or light blue. Yellow is no longer permitted in the 2007 revision of wiring code ASNZS 3000. European color codes are used for all IEC or flex cables such as extension leads, appliance leads etc. and are equally permitted for use in building wiring per AS/NZS 3000:2007.
Note that, in the U.S., a green/yellow striped wire may indicate an isolated ground.[citation needed] In most countries today, green/yellow striped wire may only be used for protective earth (safety ground) and may never be unconnected or used for any other purpose.
^2 The international standard green-yellow marking of protective-earth conductors was introduced to reduce the risk of confusion by color blind installers. About 7% to 10% of men cannot clearly distinguish between red and green, which is a particular concern in older schemes where red marks a live conductor and green marks protective earth or safety ground.
^3 In Europe, there still exist installations with older colors for protective earth but, since the early 1970s, all new installations use green/yellow according to IEC 60446.
^4 See Paul Cook: Harmonised colours and alphanumeric marking. IEE Wiring Matters, Spring 2006.
^5 Since 1975, the U.S. National Electric Code has not specified coloring of phase conductors. It is common practice in many regions to identify 120/208Y conductors as black, red, and blue. Local regulations may amend the N.E.C. The U.S. National Electric Code has color requirements for grounded conductors, ground and grounded-delta 3-phase systems which result in one ungrounded leg having a higher voltage potential to ground than the other two ungrounded legs. Orange is only appropriate when the system has a grounded delta service, regardless of voltage.
^6 The U.S. National Electric Code does not specify coloring of phase conductors, other than orange for grounded delta. It is common practice in many regions to identify 277/480Y conductors as brown, orange and yellow (delta) or brown, violet and yellow (wye), with orange always being the center phase. Local practice may amend the N.E.C. The US N.E.C. rule 517.160 (5) states these colors are to be used for isolated power systems in health care facilities. Color of conductors does not identify voltage of a circuit, because there is no formal standard.
[edit]See also
Simulation of Three-phase electric power and load
Nikola Tesla
Charging station
Frequency converter
High-leg delta
Industrial & multiphase power plugs & sockets
John Hopkinson
International Electro-Technical Exhibition - 1891
Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
Y-Δ transform
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about general three-phase electricity concepts. For the basic mathematics and principles of three-phase electricity, see three-phase.
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)
Three-phase transformer with four wire output for 208Y/120 volt service: one wire for neutral, others for A, B and C phases.
Three-phase electric power transmission.
Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating current electric power generation, transmission, and distribution.[1] It is a type of polyphase system and is the most common method used by grids worldwide to transfer power. It is also used to power large motors and other large loads. A three-phase system is generally more economical than others because it uses less conductor material to transmit electric power than equivalent single-phase or two-phase systems at the same voltage.[2] The three-phase system was introduced and patented by Nikola Tesla in the years from 1887 to 1888.
In a three-phase system, three circuit conductors carry three alternating currents (of the same frequency) which reach their instantaneous peak values at different times. Taking one conductor as the reference, the other two currents are delayed in time by one-third and two-thirds of one cycle of the electric current. This delay between phases has the effect of giving constant power transfer over each cycle of the current and also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic field in an electric motor.
Three-phase systems may have a neutral wire. A neutral wire allows the three-phase system to use a higher voltage while still supporting lower-voltage single-phase appliances. In high-voltage distribution situations, it is common not to have a neutral wire as the loads can simply be connected between phases (phase-phase connection).
Three-phase has properties that make it very desirable in electric power systems:
The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in the case of a linear balanced load. This makes it possible to eliminate or reduce the size of the neutral conductor; all the phase conductors carry the same current and so can be the same size, for a balanced load.
Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to reduce generator and motor vibrations.
Three-phase systems can produce a magnetic field that rotates in a specified direction, which simplifies the design of electric motors.
Three is the lowest phase order to exhibit all of these properties.
Most household loads are single-phase. In North America and some other countries, three-phase power generally does not enter homes. Even in areas where it does, it is typically split out at the main distribution board and the individual loads are fed from a single phase. Sometimes it is used to power electric stoves and electric clothes dryers.
The three phases are typically indicated by colors which vary by country. See the table for more information.
Contents [hide]
1 Generation and distribution
2 Three-wire versus four-wire
3 Single-phase loads
4 Three-phase loads
5 Phase converters
6 Alternatives to three-phase
7 Color codes
8 See also
9 References
[edit]Generation and distribution
Animation of three-phase current flow
Left: Elementary six-wire three-phase alternator, with each phase using a separate pair of transmission wires.[3] Right: Elementary three-wire three-phase alternator, showing how the phases can share only three wires.[4]
At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a set of three alternating electric currents, one from each coil (a.k.a. "winding") of the generator. The windings are arranged such that the currents vary sinusoidally at the same frequency but with the peaks and troughs of their wave forms offset to provide three complementary currents with a phase separation of one-third cycle (120° or 2π/3 radians). The generator frequency is typically 50 or 60 Hz, varying by country. (See Mains power systems for more detail.)
Large power generators provide an electric current at a potential which can be a few hundred volts or up to about 30 kV. At the power station, transformers step this voltage up to one suitable for transmission.
After numerous further conversions in the transmission and distribution network, the power is finally transformed to the standard utilization voltage for lighting and equipment. Single-phase loads are connected from one phase to neutral or between two phases. Three-phase loads such as larger motors must be connected to all three phases of the supply.
[edit]Three-wire versus four-wire
Three-phase circuits occur in two varieties. In one case, there are only three energized ("hot") wires; in the other case, there are three hot wires plus a neutral wire. Four-wire circuits offer flexibility, since a load may be connected "line-to-line" or "line-to-neutral"; three-wire circuits offer economy, since the neutral conductor is eliminated. Commonly, distribution voltage circuits are four-wire, while higher voltage transmission circuits are three-wire. Transmission lines often figure a ground wire, but this is solely for lightning protection and is not connected to deliver electrical power.
[edit]Single-phase loads
Single-phase loads may be connected to a three-phase system in two ways. Either a load may be connected across two of the live conductors, or a load can be connected from a live phase conductor to the neutral conductor. Single-phase loads should be distributed evenly between the phases of the three-phase system for efficient use of the supply transformer and supply conductors. If the line-to-neutral voltage is a standard load voltage, for example 230 volt on a 400 volt three-phase system, single-phase loads can connect to a phase and the neutral. Loads can be distributed over three phases to balance the load. Where the line-to-neutral voltage is not the standard voltage for example 347 volts produced by a 600 V system, single-phase loads are connected through a step-down transformer.
In a symmetrical three-phase system, the system neutral has the same magnitude of voltage to each of the three-phase conductors. The voltage between line conductors (Vl) is √3 times the phase conductor to neutral voltage (Vp). That is: Vl = √3Vp.
In some multiple-unit residential buildings of North America, three-phase power is supplied to the building but individual units have only single-phase power formed from two of the three supply phases. Lighting and convenience receptacles are connected from either phase conductor to neutral, giving the usual 120 V required by typical North American appliances. In the split-phase system, high-power loads are connected between the opposite "hot" poles, giving a voltage of 240 V. In some cases, they may be connected between phases of a three-phase system, giving a voltage of 208 V. This practice is common enough that 208 V single-phase equipment is readily available in North America. Attempts to use the more common 120/240 V equipment intended for split-phase distribution may result in poor performance since 240 V heating and lighting equipment will only produce 75% of its rating when operated at 208 V. Motors rated at 240 V will draw higher curent at 208 V; some motors are dual-labelled for both voltages.
Where three-phase at low voltage is otherwise in use, it may still be split out into single-phase service cables through joints in the supply network or it may be delivered to a master distribution board (breaker panel) at the customer's premises. Connecting an electrical circuit from one phase to the neutral generally supplies the country's standard single phase voltage (120 V AC or 230 V AC) to the circuit.
The currents returning from the customers' premises to the supply transformer all share the neutral wire. If the loads are evenly distributed on all three phases, the sum of the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately zero. Any unbalanced phase loading on the secondary side of the transformer will use the transformer capacity inefficiently.
If the supply neutral of a three-phase system with line-to-neutral connected loads is broken, the voltage balance on the loads will no longer be maintained. The neutral point will tend to drift toward the most heavily loaded phase, causing undervoltage conditions on that phase only. Correspondingly, the lightly loaded phases may approach the line-to-line voltage, which exceeds the line-to-neutral voltage by a factor of √3, causing overheating and failure of many types of loads.
For example, if several houses are connected through a 240 V transformer, which is connected to one phase of the three-phase system, each house might be affected by the imbalance on the three phase system. If the neutral connection is broken somewhere in the system, all equipment in a house might be damaged due to over-voltage. A similar phenomenon can exist if the house neutral (connected to the center tap of the 240 V pole transformer) is disconnected. This type of failure event can be difficult to troubleshoot if the drifting neutral effect is not understood. With inductive and/or capacitive loads, all phases can suffer damage as the reactive current moves across abnormal paths in the unbalanced system, especially if resonance conditions occur. For this reason, neutral connections are a critical part of a power distribution network and must be made as reliable as any of the phase connections.
Where a mixture of single-phase 120-volt lighting and three-phase, 240-volt motors are to be supplied, a system called high-leg delta is used.
[edit]Three-phase loads
A transformer for a high-leg delta system; 240 V 3-phase motors would be connected to L1, L2 and L3. Single-phase lighting would be connected L1 or L2 to neutral (N). No loads would be connected from L3 (the high or wild leg) to neutral, since the voltage would be 208 V.
The most important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A three-phase induction motor has a simple design, inherently high starting torque and high efficiency. Such motors are applied in industry for pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, conveyor drives, electric vehicles and many other kinds of motor-driven equipment. A three-phase motor is more compact and less costly than a single-phase motor of the same voltage class and rating and single-phase AC motors above 10 HP (7.5 kW) are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and hence last longer than single-phase motors of the same power used under the same conditions.
Resistance heating loads such as electric boilers or space heating may be connected to three-phase systems. Electric lighting may also be similarly connected. These types of loads do not require the revolving magnetic field characteristic of three-phase motors but take advantage of the higher voltage and power level usually associated with three-phase distribution. Legacy fluorescent lighting systems also benefit from reduced flicker if adjacent fixtures are powered from different phases.
Large rectifier systems may have three-phase inputs; the resulting DC is easier to filter (smooth) than the output of a single-phase rectifier. Such rectifiers may be used for battery charging, electrolysis processes such as aluminium production or for operation of DC motors.
An interesting example of a three-phase load is the electric arc furnace used in steelmaking and in refining of ores.
In much of Europe, stoves are designed for a three-phase feed. Usually the individual heating units are connected between phase and neutral to allow for connection to a single-phase supply. In many areas of Europe, single-phase power is the only source available.
[edit]Phase converters
Occasionally the advantages of three-phase motors make it worthwhile to convert single-phase power to three-phase. Small customers, such as residential or farm properties, may not have access to a three-phase supply or may not want to pay for the extra cost of a three-phase service but may still wish to use three-phase equipment. Such converters may also allow the frequency to be varied allowing speed control. Some railway locomotives are moving to multi-phase motors driven by such systems even though the incoming supply to a locomotive is nearly always either DC or single-phase AC.
Because single-phase power goes to zero at each moment that the voltage crosses zero but three-phase delivers power continuously, any such converter must have a way to store energy for the necessary fraction of a second.
One method for using three-phase equipment on a single-phase supply is with a rotary phase converter, essentially a three-phase motor with special starting arrangements and power factor correction that produces balanced three-phase voltages. When properly designed, these rotary converters can allow satisfactory operation of three-phase equipment such as machine tools on a single-phase supply. In such a device, the energy storage is performed by the mechanical inertia (flywheel effect) of the rotating components. An external flywheel is sometimes found on one or both ends of the shaft.
A second method that was popular in the 1940s and 1950s was the transformer method. At that time, capacitors were more expensive than transformers, so an autotransformer was used to apply more power through fewer capacitors. This method performs well and does have supporters, even today. The usage of the name transformer method separated it from another common method, the static converter, as both methods have no moving parts, which separates them from the rotary converters.
Another method often attempted is with a device referred to as a static phase converter. This method of running three-phase equipment is commonly attempted with motor loads though it only supplies ⅔ power and can cause the motor loads to run hot and in some cases overheat. This method does not work when sensitive circuitry is involved such as CNC devices or in induction and rectifier-type loads.
Some devices are made which create an imitation three-phase from three-wire single-phase supplies. This is done by creating a third "subphase" between the two live conductors, resulting in a phase separation of 180° − 90° = 90°. Many three-phase devices can run on this configuration but at lower efficiency.
Variable-frequency drives (also known as solid-state inverters) are used to provide precise speed and torque control of three-phase motors. Some models can be powered by a single-phase supply. VFDs work by converting the supply voltage to DC and then converting the DC to a suitable three-phase source for the motor.
Digital phase converters are designed for fixed-frequency operation from a single-phase source. Similar to a variable-frequency drive, they use a microprocessor to control solid-state power switching components to maintain balanced three-phase voltages.
[edit]Alternatives to three-phase
Split-phase electric power is used when three-phase power is not available and allows double the normal utilization voltage to be supplied for high-power loads.
Two-phase electric power, like three-phase, gives constant power transfer to a linear load. For loads that connect each phase to neutral, assuming the load is the same power draw, the two-wire system has a neutral current which is greater than neutral current in a three-phase system. Also motors are not entirely linear, which means that despite the theory, motors running on three-phase tend to run smoother than those on two-phase. The generators in the Adams Power Plant at Niagara Falls which were installed in 1895 were the largest generators in the world at the time and were two-phase machines. True two-phase power distribution is essentially obsolete. Special-purpose systems may use a two-phase system for control. Two-phase power may be obtained from a three-phase system using an arrangement of transformers called a Scott-T transformer.
Monocyclic power was a name for an asymmetrical modified two-phase power system used by General Electric around 1897, championed by Charles Proteus Steinmetz and Elihu Thomson. This system was devised to avoid patent infringement. In this system, a generator was wound with a full-voltage single-phase winding intended for lighting loads and with a small (usually ¼ of the line voltage) winding which produced a voltage in quadrature with the main windings. The intention was to use this "power wire" additional winding to provide starting torque for induction motors, with the main winding providing power for lighting loads. After the expiration of the Westinghouse patents on symmetrical two-phase and three-phase power distribution systems, the monocyclic system fell out of use; it was difficult to analyze and did not last long enough for satisfactory energy metering to be developed.
High-phase-order systems for power transmission have been built and tested. Such transmission lines use six (two-pole, three-phase) or twelve (two-pole, six-phase) lines and employ design practices characteristic of extra-high-voltage transmission lines. High-phase-order transmission lines may allow transfer of more power through a given transmission line right-of-way without the expense of a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter at each end of the line.
[edit]Color codes
Conductors of a three-phase system are usually identified by a color code, to allow for balanced loading and to assure the correct phase rotation for induction motors. Colors used may adhere to International Standard IEC 60446, older standards or to no standard at all and may vary even within a single installation. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, different color codes are used for grounded (earthed) and ungrounded systems.
L1 L2 L3 Neutral Ground/
protective earth
Australia and New Zealand (per AS/NZS 3000:2007 Figure 3.2) Red1 White1 (prev. yellow) Dark blue1 Black1 Green/yellow striped (green on very old installations)
Canada (mandatory)[5] Red Black Blue White Green or bare copper
Canada (isolated three-phase installations)[6] Orange Brown Yellow White Green
European Union and all countries who use European CENELEC standards April 2004 (IEC 60446), Hong Kong from July 2007 Brown Black Grey Blue Green/yellow striped2
Older European (IEC 60446, varies by country3) Black or brown Black or brown Black or brown Blue Green/yellow striped3
UK until April 2006, Hong Kong until April 2009, South Africa, Malaysia, Singapore Red Yellow Blue Black Green/yellow striped (green on installations approx. before 1970)
Republic of India and Pakistan Red Yellow Blue Black Green
People's Republic of China (per GB 50303-2002 Section 15.2.2) Yellow Green Red Light blue Green/yellow striped
Norway Black White/Grey Brown Blue Yellow/green striped, older may be only yellow or bare copper
United States (common practice)4 Black Red Blue White, or grey Green, green/yellow striped or a bare copper wire
United States (alternative practice)5 Brown Orange(delta) Violet(wye) Yellow Grey, or white Green
^1 In Australia and New Zealand, active conductors can be any color except green/yellow, green, yellow, black or light blue. Yellow is no longer permitted in the 2007 revision of wiring code ASNZS 3000. European color codes are used for all IEC or flex cables such as extension leads, appliance leads etc. and are equally permitted for use in building wiring per AS/NZS 3000:2007.
Note that, in the U.S., a green/yellow striped wire may indicate an isolated ground.[citation needed] In most countries today, green/yellow striped wire may only be used for protective earth (safety ground) and may never be unconnected or used for any other purpose.
^2 The international standard green-yellow marking of protective-earth conductors was introduced to reduce the risk of confusion by color blind installers. About 7% to 10% of men cannot clearly distinguish between red and green, which is a particular concern in older schemes where red marks a live conductor and green marks protective earth or safety ground.
^3 In Europe, there still exist installations with older colors for protective earth but, since the early 1970s, all new installations use green/yellow according to IEC 60446.
^4 See Paul Cook: Harmonised colours and alphanumeric marking. IEE Wiring Matters, Spring 2006.
^5 Since 1975, the U.S. National Electric Code has not specified coloring of phase conductors. It is common practice in many regions to identify 120/208Y conductors as black, red, and blue. Local regulations may amend the N.E.C. The U.S. National Electric Code has color requirements for grounded conductors, ground and grounded-delta 3-phase systems which result in one ungrounded leg having a higher voltage potential to ground than the other two ungrounded legs. Orange is only appropriate when the system has a grounded delta service, regardless of voltage.
^6 The U.S. National Electric Code does not specify coloring of phase conductors, other than orange for grounded delta. It is common practice in many regions to identify 277/480Y conductors as brown, orange and yellow (delta) or brown, violet and yellow (wye), with orange always being the center phase. Local practice may amend the N.E.C. The US N.E.C. rule 517.160 (5) states these colors are to be used for isolated power systems in health care facilities. Color of conductors does not identify voltage of a circuit, because there is no formal standard.
[edit]See also
Simulation of Three-phase electric power and load
Nikola Tesla
Charging station
Frequency converter
High-leg delta
Industrial & multiphase power plugs & sockets
John Hopkinson
International Electro-Technical Exhibition - 1891
Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
Y-Δ transform
Solar Photovoltaics
Solar Photovoltaic Analysis & Statistics in the United States, March 2011
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Building Integrated Photovoltaics
$ 3 500Industry reportby Pike Research September 2010
BIPV and BAPV: Market Issues, Technology Issues,Key Industry Players, and Global Market ForecastsHistorically, building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) has been relegated to a niche market because solar modules and panels have simply cost too much and have been too difficult to install on residential ...
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Trends in Global PV Market: Rising Installations in Europe, Technological Developments in the US and Increasing Manufacturing Base in Asia
$ 500Industry reportby Global Data August 2010
Trends in Global PV Market: Rising Installations in Europe, Technological Developments in the US and Increasing Manufacturing Base in AsiaSummaryThe global solar PV market is experiencing varied trends in different regions. The rising number of installations in Europe is being matched by new technological ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, Europe, Asia
Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook in United States (US) to 2020 - Capacity, Generation, Regulations, Major Power Plants, and Key Companies
$ 2 500Industry reportby Global Data August 2010
Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook in United States (US) to 2020 - Capacity, Generation, Regulations, Major Power Plants, and Key CompaniesSummaryGlobalData?s renewable energy offering, ?Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook in United States (US) to 2020 - Capacity, Generation, Regulations, Key Assets, ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic, Energy | Countries : United States
2010 U.S. Heating Equipment & Solar Cells Manufacturing Industry Report
$ 149Industry reportby Barnes Reports August 2010
The U.S. Heating Equipment & Solar Cells Manufacturing Industry report, published annually by Barnes Reports, contains timely and accurate industry statistics, forecasts and demographics. The report features 2010 current and 2011 forecast estimates on the size of the industry (sales, establishments, ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Hvac, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
The US Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook To 2020
$ 2 500Industry reportby Global Data July 2010
The US Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook To 2020SummaryGlobalData?s renewable energy offering, ?Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook in United States (US) to 2020 - Capacity, Generation, Regulations, Key Assets, and Profiles of Major Companies? gives a view of United States (US) solar thermal market and ...
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The US Solar PV Backsheet Market - Industry Trends and Opportunity Analysis to 2015
$ 7 000Industry reportby Global Data June 2010
The US Solar PV Backsheet Market - Industry Trends and Opportunity Analysis to 2015SummaryThe US Solar PV backsheets Report provides market analysis and volume forecasts up to 2015 in the US. The report contains detailed analysis of PV backsheets installed, pricing, market revenues, share of imports ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Molten Salt Solar Energy Thermal Storage and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Market Shares, Strategies, and Forecasts, Worldwide, 2010 to 2016
$ 3 500Industry reportby WinterGreen Research June 2010
WinterGreen Research announces that it has a new study on Molten Salt Solar Energy Thermal Storage and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): Market Shares and Forecasts, Worldwide, 2010-2016. The 2010 study has 309 pages, 103 tables and figures. Large solar farms are part of the answer to implementing energy ...
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US Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Power Market to 2020 - Capacity, Assets and Market Share
$ 2 500Industry reportby Global Data June 2010
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Mergers & Acquisitions Deal Analysis - MEMC Electronic Materials To Acquire Solaicx
$ 500Company reportby Global Data June 2010
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U.S. Solar Energy Market World Data, 2nd Edition
$ 4 800Industry reportby SBI June 2010
After its best year ever in 2008, the world solar market struggled to survive a tumultuous 2009. What looked like a yawning drop for the photovoltaic (PV) market in the first half of the year turned into a solid gain in total amount of systems installed on the strength of strong German sales in the fourth ...
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Global Solar Energy Outlook
$ 3 500Industry reportby Pike Research May 2010
Solar Demand Dynamics, Cost Structures, Policy Factors, and Competitive Differentiators for Suppliers: Market Analysis and ForecastsThe solar energy market has undergone a dramatic transformation over the past two years, driven by a new abundance of polysilicon, the effects of the worldwide financial ...
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$ 500Company reportby Global Data May 2010
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Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
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$ 350Industry reportby Aruvian's R'search May 2010
The solar PV market has been booming over the last years and is forecasted to confirm this trend in the coming years. By the end of 2007 the global cumulative capacity exceeded 9 GWp.The harnessing of solar energy is not new in fact, development of solar energy dates back more than 100 years, to the ...
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$ 300Industry reportby Aruvian's R'search May 2010
Photovoltaics, today, is a fast-growing and dynamic industry and its success story has been driven both by national support schemes and first-class research and demonstration. The current levels of dependence on fossil fuels, the need of reducing the carbon emissions associated with energy use and the ...
Industries : Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, United Kingdom, South Korea
Analyzing the Emerging Technology of Concentrated Solar Power
$ 300Industry reportby Aruvian's R'search May 2010
With the advent of technology, a new generation of power plants has emerged. These power plants, with concentrating solar power systems, use the sun as a heat source. There are three main types of concentrating solar power systems: parabolic-trough, dish/engine, and power tower.Concentrating solar powe ...
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Thin Film Photovoltaics and Batteries 2010-2020
$ 2 795Industry reportby IDTechEx Ltd April 2010
This comprehensive report gives a thorough analysis of printed and thin film photovoltaics and batteries. The report covers companies, research institutes and universities that are active in developing and commercialising thin film technologies for photovoltaics and batteries. Photovoltaic technologies ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Battery, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Photovoltaic Solar Panel Market Shares, Strategies, and Forecasts, Worldwide, 2010 to 2016
$ 3 500Industry reportby WinterGreen Research February 2010
WinterGreen Research announces that it has a new study on Photovoltaic Solar Strategies, Technologies And Opportunities: Market Shares and Forecasts, Worldwide, 2010�\2016. The 2010 study has 700 pages, 306 tables and figures. Large solar farms are more popular initially, but solar is anticipated to ...
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The US Solar PV Market Analysis: Policies and Incentives, Industry Trends and Forecasts to 2015
$ 3 500Industry reportby Global Data February 2010
DescriptionThe US Solar PV Market Analysis: Policies and Incentives, Industry Trends and Forecasts to 2015Summary "The US Solar PV Market Analysis:Policies and Incentives, Industry Trends and Forecasts to 2015" gives an in-depth analysis of the US solar Photovoltaic (PV) market and provides forecasts ...
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Solar Photovoltaic Cell Market Report: 2010 Edition
$ 850Industry reportby Koncept Analytics February 2010
Solar photovoltaic is emerging as a major power source due to its numerous environmental and economic benefits. Installations of PV cells and modules around the world have been growing since 1998 and recorded a tremendous growth in 2008. There has been a continuous development of PV in established markets ...
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Global Markets for Industrial and Utility Solar Thermal Technologies
$ 4 850Industry reportby BCC Research January 2010
THIS REPORT:Forecasts for the global markets, providing data for 2007 and 2008, estimates for 2009, and projections, with compound annual growth rates (CAGRs), from 2009 through 2014 An introduction into the various technologies available and their application in utilizing thermal energy derived from ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Policy Support Re-ignites the US Solar Thermal Market
$ 500Industry reportby Global Data December 2009
Policy Support Re-ignites the US Solar Thermal MarketSummaryThe US has good future prospects for solar thermal energy. Many solar thermal plants with high installed capacities are currently under construction and others are in various stages of planning. California is the hub of most of the existing ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Company Financials: Applied Materials, Inc.
$ 75Company reportby Datamonitor December 2009
IntroductionThe Company Financials offers insights into the financial performance of the company over last five years for about 1000 leading global companies. The datapack covers wealth of financial information relating to income statement, balance sheet, and cash flow statements. THIS PRODUCT HAS BEEN ...
Industries : Electronic Component and Semiconductor, Nanotechnology, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Disruptive Technologies Affecting the PV Industry, Microinverters and DC-DC Solutions: Economic Factors, Application Drivers, Architecture/Packaging Trends, Technology and Regulatory Developments - First Edition
$ 2 700Industry reportby Darnell December 2009
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Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Solar Thermal Power Report - Ed 3 2010
$ 1 057Industry reportby ABS Energy Research December 2009
Solar thermal energy is a relatively new technology which has already shown enormous promise. It is a larger energy source than is commonly perceived and it consists of three technologies. The report consists of three sections each covering one of these technologies and its markets. Low temperature ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
U.S. Solar Industry
$ 3 495Industry reportby Catalina Research November 2009
SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGSThe $2.6 billion (manufacturers? dollars) U.S. solar industry has experienced strong growth over the past five years. Demand soared due to improved photovoltaic technologies and lower prices; sharp increases in competing energy costs, and the expansion of government and financial ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Photovoltaic Patent Landscape 2009 (Three reports: Crystalline Silicon, Thin Film, Organic and Hybrid Cells)
$ 3 750Industry reportby France Innovation Scientifique et Transfert October 2009
IP Overview presents a patent landscape analysis of the Photovoltaic field.With a geopolitical context in favor of the development of alternative energies, what are the current technological positions of the players in the photovoltaic field? If the current photovoltaic market accounts only for a very ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, Japan
Photovoltaic Organic and Hybrid Cells Patent Landscape 2009
$ 1 875Industry reportby France Innovation Scientifique et Transfert October 2009
IP Overview presents a patent landscape analysis of the Photovoltaic Organic and Hybrid Cells field.With a geopolitical context in favor of the development of alternative energies, what are the current technological positions of the players in the photovoltaic field? If the current photovoltaic market ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Distributed Solar Energy Generation
$ 1 500Industry reportby Pike Research September 2009
Distributed Solar Energy GenerationSub-Utility Scale Photovoltaics: Market Analysis and ForecastsDistributed energy generation, using a variety of renewable power technologies, is one of the most important tools for addressing the challenge of meeting the world?s growing electricity demand. Within ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
U.S. Solar Energy Demand Dynamics
$ 3 500Industry reportby Pike Research July 2009
U.S. Solar Energy Demand DynamicsFinancing Structures, Government Incentives, and Market Drivers for Solar Voltaics Projects: 2009-2015The United States has become one of the more aggressive nations in promoting alternative energy technologies, but at the federal level tax credits and depreciation incentives ...
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Solar PV Report Ed 6 2009
$ 1 856Industry reportby ABS Energy Research June 2009177 pages
2008 was a record year for solar PV sales, with 5.7 GW of new capacity added. Spain shot into top place, with 2.7 GW added, the largest volume of annual sales achieved by any country ever, followed by Germany with 1.5 GW. Between them they accounted for three quarters of world sales. However, Spain?s ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, China, Spain
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Building Integrated Photovoltaics
$ 3 500Industry reportby Pike Research September 2010
BIPV and BAPV: Market Issues, Technology Issues,Key Industry Players, and Global Market ForecastsHistorically, building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) has been relegated to a niche market because solar modules and panels have simply cost too much and have been too difficult to install on residential ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : Switzerland, United States
Trends in Global PV Market: Rising Installations in Europe, Technological Developments in the US and Increasing Manufacturing Base in Asia
$ 500Industry reportby Global Data August 2010
Trends in Global PV Market: Rising Installations in Europe, Technological Developments in the US and Increasing Manufacturing Base in AsiaSummaryThe global solar PV market is experiencing varied trends in different regions. The rising number of installations in Europe is being matched by new technological ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, Europe, Asia
Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook in United States (US) to 2020 - Capacity, Generation, Regulations, Major Power Plants, and Key Companies
$ 2 500Industry reportby Global Data August 2010
Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook in United States (US) to 2020 - Capacity, Generation, Regulations, Major Power Plants, and Key CompaniesSummaryGlobalData?s renewable energy offering, ?Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook in United States (US) to 2020 - Capacity, Generation, Regulations, Key Assets, ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic, Energy | Countries : United States
2010 U.S. Heating Equipment & Solar Cells Manufacturing Industry Report
$ 149Industry reportby Barnes Reports August 2010
The U.S. Heating Equipment & Solar Cells Manufacturing Industry report, published annually by Barnes Reports, contains timely and accurate industry statistics, forecasts and demographics. The report features 2010 current and 2011 forecast estimates on the size of the industry (sales, establishments, ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Hvac, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
The US Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook To 2020
$ 2 500Industry reportby Global Data July 2010
The US Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook To 2020SummaryGlobalData?s renewable energy offering, ?Solar Thermal Power Market Outlook in United States (US) to 2020 - Capacity, Generation, Regulations, Key Assets, and Profiles of Major Companies? gives a view of United States (US) solar thermal market and ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
The US Solar PV Backsheet Market - Industry Trends and Opportunity Analysis to 2015
$ 7 000Industry reportby Global Data June 2010
The US Solar PV Backsheet Market - Industry Trends and Opportunity Analysis to 2015SummaryThe US Solar PV backsheets Report provides market analysis and volume forecasts up to 2015 in the US. The report contains detailed analysis of PV backsheets installed, pricing, market revenues, share of imports ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Molten Salt Solar Energy Thermal Storage and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Market Shares, Strategies, and Forecasts, Worldwide, 2010 to 2016
$ 3 500Industry reportby WinterGreen Research June 2010
WinterGreen Research announces that it has a new study on Molten Salt Solar Energy Thermal Storage and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): Market Shares and Forecasts, Worldwide, 2010-2016. The 2010 study has 309 pages, 103 tables and figures. Large solar farms are part of the answer to implementing energy ...
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US Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Power Market to 2020 - Capacity, Assets and Market Share
$ 2 500Industry reportby Global Data June 2010
US Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Power Market to 2020 - Capacity, Assets and Market ShareSummaryBy 2020, the global cumulative installed capacity is expected to reach 271, 442 MW as the sector is anticipated to receive government support in he coming years. This is the key takeaway provided by the alternative ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Mergers & Acquisitions Deal Analysis - MEMC Electronic Materials To Acquire Solaicx
$ 500Company reportby Global Data June 2010
Mergers & Acquisitions Deal Analysis - MEMC Electronic Materials To Acquire SolaicxSummaryMEMC Electronic Materials, Inc. (MEMC), a manufacturer of wafers, has entered into a definitive agreement to acquire Solaicx, Inc. (Solaicx), a manufacturer of solar photovoltaic ingots and wafers. Under the terms ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
U.S. Solar Energy Market World Data, 2nd Edition
$ 4 800Industry reportby SBI June 2010
After its best year ever in 2008, the world solar market struggled to survive a tumultuous 2009. What looked like a yawning drop for the photovoltaic (PV) market in the first half of the year turned into a solid gain in total amount of systems installed on the strength of strong German sales in the fourth ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Global Solar Energy Outlook
$ 3 500Industry reportby Pike Research May 2010
Solar Demand Dynamics, Cost Structures, Policy Factors, and Competitive Differentiators for Suppliers: Market Analysis and ForecastsThe solar energy market has undergone a dramatic transformation over the past two years, driven by a new abundance of polysilicon, the effects of the worldwide financial ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, Czech Republic, South Korea
Mergers & Acquisitions Deal Analysis ? JinkoSolar Holding Files for IPO
$ 500Company reportby Global Data May 2010
Mergers & Acquisitions Deal Analysis ? JinkoSolar Holding Files for IPOSummaryJinkoSolar Holding Co., Ltd., a solar products manufacturer, filed a registration statement with regulatory authority to raise up to $100 million in its initial public offering. The company plans to list its shares on the New ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Analyzing the Global Solar Photovoltaics Industry
$ 350Industry reportby Aruvian's R'search May 2010
The solar PV market has been booming over the last years and is forecasted to confirm this trend in the coming years. By the end of 2007 the global cumulative capacity exceeded 9 GWp.The harnessing of solar energy is not new in fact, development of solar energy dates back more than 100 years, to the ...
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Trends in the Global Solar Photovoltaics Industry
$ 300Industry reportby Aruvian's R'search May 2010
Photovoltaics, today, is a fast-growing and dynamic industry and its success story has been driven both by national support schemes and first-class research and demonstration. The current levels of dependence on fossil fuels, the need of reducing the carbon emissions associated with energy use and the ...
Industries : Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, United Kingdom, South Korea
Analyzing the Emerging Technology of Concentrated Solar Power
$ 300Industry reportby Aruvian's R'search May 2010
With the advent of technology, a new generation of power plants has emerged. These power plants, with concentrating solar power systems, use the sun as a heat source. There are three main types of concentrating solar power systems: parabolic-trough, dish/engine, and power tower.Concentrating solar powe ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, South Africa, Australia
Thin Film Photovoltaics and Batteries 2010-2020
$ 2 795Industry reportby IDTechEx Ltd April 2010
This comprehensive report gives a thorough analysis of printed and thin film photovoltaics and batteries. The report covers companies, research institutes and universities that are active in developing and commercialising thin film technologies for photovoltaics and batteries. Photovoltaic technologies ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Battery, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Photovoltaic Solar Panel Market Shares, Strategies, and Forecasts, Worldwide, 2010 to 2016
$ 3 500Industry reportby WinterGreen Research February 2010
WinterGreen Research announces that it has a new study on Photovoltaic Solar Strategies, Technologies And Opportunities: Market Shares and Forecasts, Worldwide, 2010�\2016. The 2010 study has 700 pages, 306 tables and figures. Large solar farms are more popular initially, but solar is anticipated to ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
The US Solar PV Market Analysis: Policies and Incentives, Industry Trends and Forecasts to 2015
$ 3 500Industry reportby Global Data February 2010
DescriptionThe US Solar PV Market Analysis: Policies and Incentives, Industry Trends and Forecasts to 2015Summary "The US Solar PV Market Analysis:Policies and Incentives, Industry Trends and Forecasts to 2015" gives an in-depth analysis of the US solar Photovoltaic (PV) market and provides forecasts ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Solar Photovoltaic Cell Market Report: 2010 Edition
$ 850Industry reportby Koncept Analytics February 2010
Solar photovoltaic is emerging as a major power source due to its numerous environmental and economic benefits. Installations of PV cells and modules around the world have been growing since 1998 and recorded a tremendous growth in 2008. There has been a continuous development of PV in established markets ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, Europe, Czech Republic
Global Markets for Industrial and Utility Solar Thermal Technologies
$ 4 850Industry reportby BCC Research January 2010
THIS REPORT:Forecasts for the global markets, providing data for 2007 and 2008, estimates for 2009, and projections, with compound annual growth rates (CAGRs), from 2009 through 2014 An introduction into the various technologies available and their application in utilizing thermal energy derived from ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Policy Support Re-ignites the US Solar Thermal Market
$ 500Industry reportby Global Data December 2009
Policy Support Re-ignites the US Solar Thermal MarketSummaryThe US has good future prospects for solar thermal energy. Many solar thermal plants with high installed capacities are currently under construction and others are in various stages of planning. California is the hub of most of the existing ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Company Financials: Applied Materials, Inc.
$ 75Company reportby Datamonitor December 2009
IntroductionThe Company Financials offers insights into the financial performance of the company over last five years for about 1000 leading global companies. The datapack covers wealth of financial information relating to income statement, balance sheet, and cash flow statements. THIS PRODUCT HAS BEEN ...
Industries : Electronic Component and Semiconductor, Nanotechnology, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Disruptive Technologies Affecting the PV Industry, Microinverters and DC-DC Solutions: Economic Factors, Application Drivers, Architecture/Packaging Trends, Technology and Regulatory Developments - First Edition
$ 2 700Industry reportby Darnell December 2009
Topics covered include:? Application Segments? Alternative Energy Technologies? Recent Developments in the Photovoltaics Industry? Architectural and Technology Trends and Developments? Business Trends and Developments? Cost Dynamics of Photovoltaic Power? Cost Dynamics of Disruptive PV Inverter Technology? ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Solar Thermal Power Report - Ed 3 2010
$ 1 057Industry reportby ABS Energy Research December 2009
Solar thermal energy is a relatively new technology which has already shown enormous promise. It is a larger energy source than is commonly perceived and it consists of three technologies. The report consists of three sections each covering one of these technologies and its markets. Low temperature ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
U.S. Solar Industry
$ 3 495Industry reportby Catalina Research November 2009
SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGSThe $2.6 billion (manufacturers? dollars) U.S. solar industry has experienced strong growth over the past five years. Demand soared due to improved photovoltaic technologies and lower prices; sharp increases in competing energy costs, and the expansion of government and financial ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Photovoltaic Patent Landscape 2009 (Three reports: Crystalline Silicon, Thin Film, Organic and Hybrid Cells)
$ 3 750Industry reportby France Innovation Scientifique et Transfert October 2009
IP Overview presents a patent landscape analysis of the Photovoltaic field.With a geopolitical context in favor of the development of alternative energies, what are the current technological positions of the players in the photovoltaic field? If the current photovoltaic market accounts only for a very ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, Japan
Photovoltaic Organic and Hybrid Cells Patent Landscape 2009
$ 1 875Industry reportby France Innovation Scientifique et Transfert October 2009
IP Overview presents a patent landscape analysis of the Photovoltaic Organic and Hybrid Cells field.With a geopolitical context in favor of the development of alternative energies, what are the current technological positions of the players in the photovoltaic field? If the current photovoltaic market ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Distributed Solar Energy Generation
$ 1 500Industry reportby Pike Research September 2009
Distributed Solar Energy GenerationSub-Utility Scale Photovoltaics: Market Analysis and ForecastsDistributed energy generation, using a variety of renewable power technologies, is one of the most important tools for addressing the challenge of meeting the world?s growing electricity demand. Within ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
U.S. Solar Energy Demand Dynamics
$ 3 500Industry reportby Pike Research July 2009
U.S. Solar Energy Demand DynamicsFinancing Structures, Government Incentives, and Market Drivers for Solar Voltaics Projects: 2009-2015The United States has become one of the more aggressive nations in promoting alternative energy technologies, but at the federal level tax credits and depreciation incentives ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States
Solar PV Report Ed 6 2009
$ 1 856Industry reportby ABS Energy Research June 2009177 pages
2008 was a record year for solar PV sales, with 5.7 GW of new capacity added. Spain shot into top place, with 2.7 GW added, the largest volume of annual sales achieved by any country ever, followed by Germany with 1.5 GW. Between them they accounted for three quarters of world sales. However, Spain?s ...
Industries : Renewable Energy, Solar Photovoltaic | Countries : United States, China, Spain
<<< Previous12Next >>>
Related industries
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